Mercury Free Baby in cooperation with The Coalition for Mercury-free Drugs (CoMed) has put together a compilation of studies showing harm from Thimerosal (also referred to as Thiomersal) found in vaccines.
Please click the small green plus sign icon in the far left column to see the FINDINGS of the study.
Authors |
Year |
Journal |
Cmp |
General type of study |
Model System |
Type of Study |
More Specific Focus |
When Exposed |
Sex-dependent |
Finding |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| de Magalhães Silva et al. | 2020 | Int J Biol Macromol. | TM | tissue culture | human | Histological analysis | TM interaction with human hemoglobin | na | na | TM interacts with hemoglobin, leading to structural conformation changes; decreases Hb-O2 binding capacity by up to 72% at physiological conditions; induces protein glycation and amyloid formation in human hemoglobin; Hb-Cys93 residues are blocked by ethylmercury transferred from thimerosal |
| Lin et al. | 2019 | Microchemical Journal | TM | analytical | animal | (MD/μFPCAVD/ICPMS) | in vivo quantification of Hg in extracellular fluid/rat brains from TM | na | na | patterns of brain extracellular mercury after thimerosal administration were similiar to that of methylmercury |
| Noshadian et al. | 2019 | J Chem Neuroanat. | TM | histological | animal | Histological analysis | protective effects of Alpha Lipoic Acid against THIM-induced effects | na | na | brain cell loss, abnormal changes in neuroimmune cells (p < 0.05), prefrontal cortex volume (p < 0.05), and the glutathione content of prefrontal cortex |
| Ramos et al. | 2019 | Chem Biol Interact. | TM | histological | yeast | Histological analysis | compared toxic effects of MeHg and EtHg in Saccharomyces cerevisiae | na | na | MeHg and EtHg inhibited cell growth, decreased membrane integrity, and increased the granularity and production of reactive species (RS) |
| Afsordeh et al. | 2019 | Drug Chem Toxicol. | TM | histo/behavioral | animal | Histological analysis | Assessed prefrontal lobe/rat brains exposed to Thimerosal | na | na | the ethylmercury caused abnormal neurogenic inflammatory reactions and alterations in the neuroimmune cells that lasted for a longer period in the brain than in the blood |
| Chen et al. | 2019 | Eur J Pharm Biopharm. | TM | histo/behavioral | animal | Histological analysis | immunogenicity of human papillomavirus (HPV) virus | na | na | reduced binding activity was observed between HPV antigens and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) upon thimerosal treatment, accompanied by reduced protein conformational stability |
| Namvarpour et al. | 2018 | J Appl Biotechnol Rep. | TM | histo/behavioral | animal | histo/behavioral | impairments of social/stereotyped behaviors | postnatal | na | impairments of locomotor activity and their social interactions were reduced. While the duration of freezing/grooming as stereotyped behaviors were increased significantly. The results of histological studies also showed a noteworthy decrease in the number of Purkinje cells in both sexes. |
| Cao et al. | 2018 | Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. | EtHg | histological | minnow | Histological analysis | acute and sublethal effect of EtHg | 4months | na | very high accumulation of EtHg with necrosis, telangiectasis and exfoliation of epithelial cells in the gill, as well as edema, vacuoles, and pyknotic nuclei in hepatocytes; plus new species diethylmercury |
| Laudati et al. | 2018 | Neurotoxicology. | TM | tissue culture | human | Histological analysis | examining Resveratral effects on TM damage | na | na | decreased the protein expression of transcription factor Downstream Regulatory Element Antagonist Modulator |
| Bianchini et al. | 2018 | Metallomics. | TM | tissue culture | fruit fly | MTT assay |
neurotoxic effects of TM, incl. malfunction of the monoaminergic system | na | na | impaired DA function and behavioral abnormalities, ultimately causing oxidative stress-related neurotoxicity. |
| Santos et al. | 2018 | Int J Biol Macromol. | TM | tissue culture | bovine | bovine serum albumin | interaction between bovine serum albumin (BSA) and TM | na | na | both TM and EtHgCl accelerate the protein fibrillation kinetics |
| Geier et al. | 2018 | Int J Hyg Environ Health. | TM | epidemiology | human | case control | TM exposure from Hib and risk of autism, developmental delay, psychomotor disorder | significant relationship between TM exposure from Hib and risk of autism, developmental delay, psychomotor disorder | ||
| Geier et al. | 2018 | J Trace Elem Med Biol. | TM | epidemiology | human | cross-sectional | TM exposure from Hep B vaccine and risk of ADHD | postnatal | males more affected | significant relationship between TM exposure from Hep B vaccine and risk of ADHD |
| Kern et al. | 2018 | Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars). | TM | outcome analysis | human | outcome analysis | Neurotoxicants and male vulnerability | na | males more affected | TM exposure disproportionately affects males |
| Geier et al. | 2018 | Int J Environ Res Public Health. | TM | epidemiology | human | cross-sectional | TM exposure from Hep B vaccine and risk of Special Ed | TM exposure from Hep B vaccine and risk of Special Ed | na | significant relationship between TM exposure from Hep B vaccine and risk of Special Ed |
| Afsordeh et al. | 2018 | Drug Chem Toxicol. | TM | animal model | animal | Wistar rats | immune cells | na | na | ethylmercury caused abnormal neurogenic inflammatory reactions and alterations in the neuroimmune cells that remained for a longer period in the brain than in the blood (immune cells [mast cells (MCs) and microglia] and pro-neuroinflammation cytokines (interleukin-1b and tumor necrosis factor-α)) |
| Namvarpour et al. | 2018 | Neurotoxicol Teratol. | TM | animal model | animal | male Wistar rats | protective effects of Alpha Lipoic Acid | postnatal | na | Thimerosal significantly impacted locomotor activity, and impaired social and stereotyped behaviors. |
| Santos et al. | 2018 | Int J Biol Macromol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | bovine serum albumin | interaction with TM | na | na | TM causes structural changes in the polypeptide chain of thebovine serum albumin; both TM and EtHgCl accelerate the protein fibrillation kinetics in 42 and 122%, respectively, indicating the toxicity of these compounds in biological systems. |
| Pantaleão et al. | 2017 | Endocr Connect. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat thyroid tissue | the effect of TM on thyroid hormones | na | na | TM might directly interact with deiodinases, inhibiting their activity probably by binding to their selenium catalytic site |
| Donahue et al. | 2017 | Vaccine | TM | epidemiology | human | case control | TM containing vaccines and fetal death | prenatal | na | pregnant women who get the flu vaccine and the H1N1 vaccine are more likely to lose the fetus; over half of the flu vaccines and the H1N1 vaccine contain Thimerosal |
| Gibson et al. | 2017 | Metallomics. | TM | tissue culture | human | human red cells | Compared Hg and RBC interaction | na | na | TM had slightly more affinity in binding with RBC hemoglobin than methylHg |
| Geier et al. | 2017 | J Trace Elem Med Biol. | TM | epidemiology | human | case-control | TM exposure | postnatal | na | TM exposure increased the risk of an autism diagnosis |
| Branco et al. | 2017 | Redox Biol. | EtHg | tissue culture | human | human neuronal cells | SH-SY5Y | na | na | Impaired cross-talk between the thioredoxin and glutathione systems and increased oxidative stress and EtHg depleted GSH; EtHg more toxic than MeHg |
| Geier et al. | 2017 | Dose Response. | TM | epidemiology | human | case-control | examined the relationship of TM and Tic disorder, ASD and ADHD | postnatal | males more affected | dose dependednt relationship found between exposure to TM in infancy and tic disorder, ASD, and ADHD, all which have similar abnormal brain connectivity disorder, ACSD |
| Leslie et al. | 2017 | Front Psychiatry. | TM | clinical | human | national sample of privately insured children | compared the prior year's occurrence of vaccinations in children and adolescents aged 6-15 years with the above neuropsychiatric disorders | postnatal | na | influenza vaccinations during the prior 3, 6, and 12 months were also associated with incident diagnoses of anorexia nervosa (AN), OCD, and an anxiety disorder; and meningitis with AN and chronic tic disorder |
| Geier et al. | 2017 | Brain Inj. | TM | epidemiology | human | case-control | evaluated Hg exposure from Thimerosal in hepatitis B vaccines and a diagnosis of emotional disturbances | postnatal | males more affected | significant relationship between Hg exposure from Thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines and the subsequent risk of an emotional disturbances diagnosis |
| Geier et al. | 2016 | Med Sci Monit. | TM | epidemiology | human | case-control | a two-phase assessment of autism rates following the reduction of Thimerosal us in childhood vaccines in the late 1990s early 2000s | postnatal | no | the risk of autism during from the late1990s to early 2000s in the US significantly decreased with reductions in Hg exposure from Thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines |
| Haase et al. | 2016 | Arch Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human | neutrophil | neutrophil extracellular traps | na | na | TM caused the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)/ autoantibodies |
| Geier et al. | 2016 | Brain Sci. | TM | epidemiology | human | VSD | assessed the toxicological effects of bolus exposure to organic-Hg from Thimerosal-containing vaccines and ADHD | postnatal | no | increasing organic-Hg exposure from TCVs heightens the risk of a ADHD diagnosis |
| Geier et al. | 2016 | J Epidemiol Glob Health. | TM | epidemiology | human | VSD | valuate the relationship between exposure to Hg from Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines and specific delays in development | postnatal | no | Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines are associated with specific delays in development |
| Lohren et al. | 2016 | BMC Pharmacol Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | pig brains | compares ethyl-, methyl-, and inorganic Hg toxicty and transfer across blood brain barrier | na | na | methyl- and ethyl-Hg both cross the blood brain barrier both ways and are similarly toxic. Inorganic Hg crosses out but not into the brain |
| Zerbo | 2016 | JAMA Pediatr | TM | epidemiology | human | cohort study | to investigate the association between influenza infection and vaccination during pregnancy and ASD risk. | prenatal | na | increased ASD risk among children whose mothers received an influenza vaccination in their first trimester |
| Suwalsky et al. | 2016 | J Membr Biol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human erythrocyte membrane | to understand the molecular mechanisms of the toxic effect of TM on classes of phospholipids in outer and inner monolayers of human erythrocyte membrane | na | na | TM interacted in a concentration-dependent manner with bilayers, and in vitro interacted with erythrocytes inducing morphological changes |
| Zieminska et al. | 2016 | Toxicology | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat cerebellar granule cells | to test if various suspected developmental neurotoxins can alter SNAP-25 mRNA and protein expression in neurons | na | na | TM reduced SNAP-25 mRNA levels to 69% of the control: SNAP-25 is implicated in hyperactivity and cognitive abilities in some neuropsychiatric disorders |
| Guida et al. | 2016 | Toxicol Sci. | TM | tissue culture | animal | infant male rats | to investigate the effect of HDAC inhibition on thimerosal-induced neurotoxicity in neuroblastoma cells and cortical neurons | postnatal | ? | Thimerosal, at 0.5 μM in SH-SY5Y cells and at 1 μM in neurons, caused cell death by activation of apoptosis, MC1568 prevented thimerosal-induced HDAC4 increase |
| Yoshida et al. | 2016 | Neurotoxicology. | EtHg | tissue culture | animal | mouse brain | to examine whether MeHg and EtHg affects the ciliary movementof ventricular ependymal cells in the mouse brain | na | na | Ependymal cell cilia movement inhibited by MeHg and EtHg in a concentration-dependent manner around concentrations reported to cause poisoning in humans with subsequent inhibition of CSF flow |
| Geier et al. | 2016 | N Am J Med Sci. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Thimerosal and obesity | postnatal | no | cases diagnosed with obesity were significantly more likely than controls to have received greater exposure to organic mercury from Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines |
| Choi et al. | 2016 | Toxicol Sci. | EtHg | tissue culture | animal | mouse kidney | mechanism of toxicity was explored in vitro in HK-2 cells | na | na | EtHg dose-dependently increased the production of reactive oxygen species, reduced the mitochondrial membrane potential, activated the unfolded protein response, and increased cytosolic Ca2+ levels in HK-2 cells. Cell death induced by EtHg exposure was caused by autophagy and necrosis. |
| Stamogiannos et al. | 2016 | ACS Med Chem Lett. | TM | tissue culture | human | virtual screening followed by in vitro evaluation | to discover novel inhibitors of ER aminopeptidase 1, | na | na | cell-based analysis indicated TM effectively reduces ERAP1-dependent cross-presentation by dendritic cells in a dose-dependent manner |
| Al-Saleh et al. | 2016 | Int J Hyg Environ Health. | TM | clinical | human | measured Hg levels and oxidative stress markers | T Hg in infants hair and mothers hair and urine; metylHg maesured in mothers hair and blood and infants hair | pre- and post-natal | na | urinary total Hg, hair total Hg, and hair methyl Hg varied significantly with the timing of TM exposure from vaccines |
| de Oliveira Souza et al. | 2016 | J Toxicol Environ Health A. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat cerebral cell proteome | rat cerebral cell proteome following exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) or ethylmercury (EtHg) given IM | na | na | both MeHg and EtHg exposure induced an overexpression of calbindin, a protein that acts as a neuroprotective agent In contrast, MeHg-exposed animals shoewed increased expression of superoxide dismutase (SOD), a protein involved in antioxidant defense. |
| Pletz et al. | 2016 | Toxicology. | TM | dose-response data | studies | in vivo and in vitro merury studies | dose-response data from in vitroandin vivoorganic mercury toxicity studies fit the Druckrey-Küpfmüller equation | na | na | Druckrey-Küpfmüller equation describes well the dose-response characteristics of organic mercury induced neurotoxic effects |
| Waly et al. | 2016 | Oxid Med Cell Longev. | TM | tissue culture | human | SH-SY5Y human neuronal cells | effects of TM on methinine synthase and B12 | na | na | TM treatment decreased cellular levels of glutathionylcobalamin and methylcobalamin (B12), indicating alternatively spliced forms of methionine synthase expressed in SH-SY5Y human neuronal cells are sensitive to inhibition by TM and neurotoxic metals |
| Dorea et al. | 2016 | Environ Res. | TM | clinical | human | human children | neurodevelopmental outcomes in Amazonian children with methyl- and ethylmercury exposure | pre- and post-natal | na | combined (methyl- and ethyl-Hg) exposure showed significant decrease in both Mental Developmental Index and Psychomotor Developmental Index scores at 24 months; plus significant delays in Bayley Scale of Infant Development |
| Geier et al. | 2015 | Interdiscip Toxicol. | TM | epidemiology | human | case-control | evaluated automated medical records for exposure to organic-Hg from Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines and tic disorder | postnatal | na | Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccines (TM-HepB) administered at specific intervals in the first six-months-of-life is associated with tic disorder |
| Galluccio et al. | 2015 | Toxicol Sci. | TM | tissue culture | bacteria | E. Coli bacteria | effect of mercury compounds was tested on the organic cation transporter, hOCTN1 | na | na | TM inhibited organic cation transporter, hOCTN1 |
| LaVoie et al. | 2015 | J Biol Inorg Chem | TM | tissue culture | bacteria | E. Coli bacteria | effects of inorganic and organic Hg compounds on thiol and metal homeostases | na | na | cells bound Hg(II) and phenylmercuric (PMA) acetate in excess of their available thiol ligands; X-ray absorption spectroscopy indicated nitrogens as likely additional ligands.PMA and MT made stable cysteine monothiol adducts in many Fe-binding proteins, but stable Hg(II) adducts were only seen in CysXxx(n)Cys peptides. PMA and TM made stable cysteine monothiol adducts in many Fe-binding proteins, but stable Hg(II) adducts were only seen in CysXxx(n)Cys peptides. |
| Geier et al. | 2015 | J Epidemiol Glob Health. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Thimerosal and specific delays in development | postnatal | males more affected | infants receiving increased Hg doses from T-HBVs administered within the first month, the first 2months, and the first 6months of life were significantly more likely to be diagnosed with specific delays in development |
| Niehoff et al. | 2015 | Anal Chem. | TM | tissue culture | animal | Drosophila melanogaster | mercury distribution for the three species mercury(II) chloride, methylmercury chloride and thimerosal after intoxication | na | na | mercury levels in brain for methylmercury chloride and thimerosal exceeded the fed concentration indicating mercury enrichment |
| Lohren et al. | 2015 | Metallomics. | TM | tissue culture | animal | porcine in vitro model of the blood-CSF barrier | investigate the effects of organic as well as inorganic mercury compounds on, and their transfer across blood-CSF barrier | na | na | Thimerosal more toxic that methylHg and transfer of organic mercury compounds out of the CSF, not inorganic |
| Rempel et al. | 2015 | Arch Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | neuroectoderm from pluripotent stem cells (UKN1) | test system of developmental toxicity, related to the generation of neuroectoderm from pluripotent stem cells | na | na | enzyme inhibition at concentrations below benchmark concentration and full inhibition of caspase-3 activity |
| Eid et al. | 2015 | Toxicol Appl Pharmacol | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat | immunological effects of swine flu vaccine containing TM, adjuvant, and H1N1 vaccine injected into rats | postnatal | na | squalene and TM contributed to regiment of adverse reactions and symptoms, which act as detergents instead of its helper role; with negative immunological effects;the biological hazards were more pronounced when act together as whole vaccine than they act individually |
| Lohren et al. | 2015 | J Trace Elem Med Biol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human neurons and human astrocytes | compared toxic effects of MeHg chloride, TM, mercury chloridein differentiated human neurons and human astrocytes | na | na | neurons more susceptible to Hg induced cytotoxicity compared to astrocytes. Massive cellular mercury uptake in the differentiated neurons. The organic compounds exerted stronger cytotoxic effects as compared to inorganic HgCl2. In contrast to HgCl2exposure, organic Hg compounds seem to induce the apoptotic cascade in neurons following low-level exposure. |
| Rodrigues et al. | 2015 | Toxicol Appl Pharmacol | TM | tissue culture | human | rat and human (liver and neuroblastoma cells) | determine effects of TM and its breakdown product EtHg on thioredoxin system and NADP+-dependent dehydrogenases | na | na | TM and EtHg inhibited the thioredoxin system enzymes, EtHg was comparable to MeHg, mechanism of toxicity encompasses the blockage of electrons from NADPH via thioredoxin system; decreased cell viability |
| Haase | 2015 | Arch Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human | neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) | investigates the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in response to TM | na | na | triggered NADPH oxidase-independent production of ROS, which are likely to be involved in mercurial-induced NET formation; this could be one step in the series of events leading to autoimmunity |
| Rose et al. | 2015 | J Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human | lymphoblastoid cell lines | lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) from individuals with autism and unaffected controls exposed to ethylmercury | na | na | autism LCLs exhibited greater reduction in ATP-linked respiration, maximal respiratory capacity, and reserve capacity, compared to control LCLs |
| Geier et al. | 2015 | Biol Trace Elem Res. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | subjects with PDD (n = 534) in comparison to controls in the VSD and exposure to TM in Haemophilus influenzae Type b vaccine | first 15 months of life | males more affected | association found between TM exposure and a PDD diagnosis |
| Galluccio et al. | 2014 | Toxicol Sci. | TM | tissue culture | bacteria | human OCTN1 transport protein | mutants of hOCTN1 in which Cys residues substituted by Ala constructed, over-expressed in E. coli and purified. | na | na | ethyl mercury (Thimerosal) inhibited hOCTN1 as well. C50A, C50A/C136A and, at very lower extent C136A, showed increased IC50 indicating that C50 was the major target of this mercury compound. |
| Sakamoto et al. | 2014 | Toxicol & Environ Chem | EtHg | tissue culture | animal | C8-B4 mouse brain cells | cell membrane participate in the Ca2+ uptake that is induced by ethyl mercury | na | na | ethyl mercury may induce Ca2+ uptake through the P2X7 receptor of the cell membrane |
| Hornos Carneiro et al. | 2014 | Environ Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human kidney cells | determine the potential cytotoxic mechanisms of thimerosal on human kidney cells | na | na | (1) thimerosal induces kidney epithelial cell apoptosis via upregulating Bax and the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and (2) thimerosal is a potential pro-fibrotic agent in human kidney cells. |
| Carneiro et al. | 2014 | Environ Res. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mice | evaluate kinetics of Hg species in mice after IM injection of TM, by estimating Hg half-lives in blood and tissues | na | na | Estimated half-lives (in days) were 8.8 for blood, 10.7 for brain, 7.8 for heart, 7.7 for liver and 45.2 for kidney. |
| Geier et al. | 2014 | J Biochem Pharmacol Res | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | risk of neurodevelopmental disorders following a Thimerosal-preserved DTaP compared to its Thimerosal-reduced formulation | early infancy | males more affected | cases autism, speech disorders, mental retardation, or ND were significantly more likely than controls to have received Thimerosal-preserved DTaP vaccine (exposed) in comparison to Thimerosal-reduced DTaP vaccine |
| Geier et al. | 2014 | N Am J Med Sci. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | Thimerosal-containing Hep B vaccination and risk for specific delays in development | first six months of life | males more affected | cases were significantly more likely than controls to have received increased organic-mercury from Thimerosal-containing hepatitis B vaccine administered in the first, second, and sixth month of life. |
| Geier et al. | 2014 | Int J Environ Res Public Health. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | dose dependent relationship between TM exposure and NDs | first six months of life | males more affected | per microgram, PDD, specific developmental delay, tic disorder, and hyperkinetic syndrome of childhood cases were significantly more likely than controls to receive increased organic-Hg exposure |
| Koh et al. | 2014 | Mol Brain. | TM | tissue culture | mouse | microglia and neuron cultures | zinc, MMP, and BDNF levels after TM exposure | na | na | TM caused elevated zinc, MMP, and BDNF levels that can cause the hyperconnectivity found in ASD |
| Loison et al. | 2014 | Hum Vaccin Immunother. | TM | tissue culture | human | human dendritic cells | non-toxic concentrations of TM on DC maturation and functions | na | na | nanomolar concentrations of thimerosal prevented LPS-induced DC maturation |
| Loison et al. | 2014 | PLoS One. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | primary human T cells | na | na | induced a dose-dependent apoptotic cell death associated with depolarization of mitochondrial membrane, generation of reactive oxygen species, cytochrome c release from the mitochondria and caspase-3 activation. Moreover, exposure to non-toxic concentrations of thimerosal induced cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phase of TCR-activated T cells, and inhibition of the release of proinflammatory cytokines such as IFN gamma, IL-1 beta, TNF alpha, IL-2, as well as the chemokine MCP1. |
| Li et al. | 2014 | Toxicol Sci. | TM | tissue culture and functional testing | animal | mice | brain tissue and developmental testing | first 4 months of life | males more affected | neural development delay, social interaction deficiency, and inclination of depression; alternation of a number of canonical pathways involving neuronal development, neuronal synaptic function, dysregulation of endocrine system |
| Trumpler et al. | 2014 | J Trace Elem Med Biol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human blood | human whole blood and physiological simulation solutions | na | na | analogous behaviour of methylmercury and ethylmercury species in human blood was shown and an ethylmercury-glutathione adduct was identified. |
| Dorea et al. | 2014 | J Toxicol Environ Health A. | TM | clinical | human | human children | Gesell Development Schedule (GDS) on children from two villages in Brazil | postnatal | na | children in the village with higher mercury exposure from maternal fish consumption and postnatal TCV had a significantly more severely affected children |
| Pieper et al. | 2014 | Metallomics. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | human astrocytes | na | na | strongly disturbed poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation, a signalling reaction induced by DNA strand breaks |
| Zhang et al. | 2014 | Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | human Chang conjunctival cells | na | na | acute exposure to thimerosal induces antiproliferative properties, apoptosis, and autophagy activation in human Chang conjunctival cells |
| Staab et al. | 2014 | PLoS Genet. | TM | tissue culture | animal | nematode (roundworm) | transcriptome RNA sequencing to identify genes controlled by the SKN-1/Nrf2 negative regulator WDR-23 in the nervous system | na | na | increased nuclear SKN-1::GFP in the intestine and also increased Pnlg-1::gfp fluorescence in motor neurons (TM interferes with brain structural proteins) |
| Wehe et al. | 2014 | Anal Bioanal Chem. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | human astrocytes | na | na | many-fold higher levels of Hg were present in the cells with exposure to organic Hg compounds than inorganic Hg compounds |
| Marques et al. | 2014 | Environ Pollut. | TM | clinical | human | human children | children in Brazil | postnatal | males more affected | negativelly impacted children's psychomotor developement |
| Geier et al. | 2013 | Transl Neurodegener. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | US children in the VSD and VAERS | postnatal | na | Increased risk of an ASD diagnosis |
| Grønborg et al. | 2013 | JAMA Pediatr. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | children (about 1.5 million) born in Denmark between January 1, 1980, and December 31, 2004 | postnatal | na | decrease in the rate of ASD with the removal of TM from vaccines |
| Chen et al. | 2013 | World J Pediatr. | TM | tissue culture and functional testing | animal | rat | premature SD rats at a dose of 32.8, 65.6, 98.4 or 131.2 μg/kg | postnatal day 1 | na | expression of DRD4 and 5-HT2AR and learning function decreased, and apoptosis increased significantly in the 131.2 μg/kg group, Memory function was significantly impaired by 65.6 (P<0.05), 98.4 and 131.2 μg/kg (P<0.001) |
| Zimmermann et al. | 2013 | Neurotoxicology. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat | rat glioma cell | na | na | significant cytotoxicity (p<0.0001) was observed; ethyl and methyl comparative; both transported by LAT equally |
| Goldman | 2013 | Hum Exp Toxicol. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | VAERS database during three consecutive flu seasons beginning 2008/2009 | prenatal | na | increased prenatal TM exposure resulted in an 11-fold increased fetal-loss rate |
| Sharpe et al. | 2013 | J Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | B-lymphocytes taken from individuals with autism, their nonautistic twins, and their nontwin siblings and controls. | na | na | autism families showed thimerosal hypersensitivity, whereas none of the control individuals displayed this response.The thimerosal concentration required to inhibit cell proliferation in these individuals was only 40% of controls. Cells hypersensitive to thimerosal also had higher levels ofoxidative stress markers, protein carbonyls, and oxidant generationprotein carbonyls, and oxidant generation. |
| Abdel-Rahman | 2013 | J Applied Pharmaceutical Science | TM | tissue culture | animal | adult mice | brain tissue | adults | na | elevated brain nitric oxide and decreased brain glutathione levels, neuron degeneration and brain holes |
| Madhadiyeva et al. | 2012 | Immunology | TM | tissue culture | human | human HLA-B27 cells | human HLA-B27 cells | na | na | induced MHC class I dimmers, the formation of which may provide novel structures for recognition by the immune system. |
| Guzzi et al. | 2012 | Interdiscip Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | Jurkat T cells, a human T leukemia cell line | na | na | caused a significant decrease in cellular viability at 1 μM (25%, p<0.05; IC50: 10 μM). Methyl mercury exhibited a significant decrease in cellular viability at 50 μM (33%, p<0.01; IC50: 65 μM). Mercuric chloride (HgCl2) did not show any significant change in cellular survival. |
| Zimmer et al. | 2012 | Environ Health Perspect | TM | tissue culture | human | human | neural crest cells | na | na | reduced NC cell migration at least as potently and effectively as CH3HgCl (lowest effective concentration in the range of 1–5 nM), whereas inorganic mercury (HgCl2) was about 10-fold less potent |
| li et al. | 2012 | PLoS One. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mouse | mouse C2C12 myoblast cells | na | na | thimerosal induces S phase arrest and finally causes apoptosis via inhibition of PI3K/Akt/survivin signaling followed by activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway |
| Mrozek-Budzyn et al. | 2012 | Neurotoxicol Teratol. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | 196 infants born between January 2001 and March 2003 to mothers in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy in Krakow | prenatal | na | an adverse effect of neonatal TCV exposure was observed for the psychomotor development index (PDI) only in the 12th and 24th months of life. The overall deficit in the PDI attributable to neonatal TCV exposure measured over the course of the three-year follow-up (GEE) was significantly higher in TCV group. |
| Blanuša et al. | 2012 | J Biomed Biotechnol. | TM | tissue culture and urine | animal | rat infants | whole blood and urine and mass fractions of mercury in organs (kidneys, liver, brain, small intestine, and large intestine) | early postnatal life | na | TM-exposed group mercury retention was higher in the brain, enteral excretion was similar, and urinary excretion was much lower compared to HgCl(2)-exposed sucklings. |
| Sharpe et al. | 2012 | J Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human brain | human | astrocytes | na | na | inhibits mitochondrial respiration leading to a drop in the steady state membrane potential, but also concurrent with these phenomena increases the formation of superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and Fenton/Haber-Weiss generated hydroxyl radical. These oxidants increase the levels of cellular aldehyde/ketones. Additionally, we find a five-fold increase in the levels of oxidant damaged mitochondrial DNA bases and increases in the levels of mtDNA nicks and blunt-ended breaks. |
| Khan et al. | 2012 | J Physiol Pharmacol. | TM | tissue culture | brain | rats | cerebellum | prenatal | males more affected | expression of suppressor-of-white-apricot-1 (SWAP-1), a gene negatively regulated by T3, was increased in TM-exposed males (61.1% increase), but not in females; (p<0.05). Positively regulated T3-target genes, Purkinje cell protein 2 (Pcp2; p=0.07) and Forkhead box protein P4 (FoxP4; p=0.08), showed a trend towards decreased expression in TM-exposed males. The expression of deiodinase 2 (DIO2) showed a trend towards an increase in TM-exposed females, |
| Ye et al. | 2012 | Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. | TM | tissue culture | human | eyes | conjunctival epithelial cells | na | na | DNA single- and double-strand breaks |
| Ida-Eto et al. | 2012 | Brain Dev. | TM | tissue culture | brain | rats | brain | prenatal | na | lasting impairment of brain monoaminergic system |
| Dorea et al. | 2012 | J Biomed Biotechnol. | TM | clinical | human children | human children | Amazonian infants | na | na | a higher score of neurological development at six months was negatively associated with exposure to additional TCV-EtHg |
| Chauvat et al. | 2012 | J Immunol Methods. | TM | tissue culture | immune | human | T cells in vitro | na | na | abortive activation of T cells followed by cell death |
| Duszczyk-Budhathoki et al. | 2012 | Neurochem Res. | TM | tissue culture | brain | rats | rat prefrontal cortex | infant | na | rapid increase of glutamate overflow |
| Sulkowski et al. | 2012 | Cerebellum. | TM | tissue culture | brain | rats | cerebellum | infant | males more affected | aberrant cerebellar oxidative stress, thyroid hormone metabolism, and motor behavior in rat pups |
| Barile et al. | 2012 | J Pediatr Psychol. | TM | clinical | human children | human children | neuropsychological tests | early life | males more affected | presence of tics |
| Ida-Eto et al. | 2011 | Neurosci Lett. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat infants | early development of serotonergic neurons | embryonic exposure | na | dramatic increase in the number of serotonergic neurons localized to the lateral portion of the caudal raphe was observed |
| Secor et al. | 2011 | Int J Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | vascular | mouse | aortic endothelial cell | na | na | induced phospholipase D activation, induced upstream phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) leading to downstream threonine phosphorylation of PLD(1), and caused loss of intracellular glutathione |
| Olczak et al. | 2011 | Behav Brain Res. | TM | animal model | animal | rat infants | behavioral tests | early postnatal life | males more affected | impairments of locomotor activity and increased anxiety/neophobia, prosocial interactions was reduced, frequency of asocial/antisocial interactions was increased in males, but decreased in females, marked decline in the density of striatal D2 receptors |
| Asadi et al. | 2010 | Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human cells | human leukemic cultured LAD2 mast cells | na | na | induced significant vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) |
| Hunter et al. | 2010 | Dis Model Mech. | TM | tissue culture | animal | nematodes | single neuroligin gene | na | na | single neuroligin gene (nlg-1) mutants were significantly more sensitive than wild-type animals to both inorganic (HgCl2) and organic thimerosal |
| Olczak et al.a | 2010 | Folia Neuropathol. | TM | animal model | animal | rat infants | brain | early postnatal life | na | degeneration of neurons and "dark" neurons in the prefrontal and temporal cortex, the hippocampus and the cerebellum, pathological changes of the blood vessels in the temporal cortex, diminished synaptophysin reaction in the hippocampus, atrophy of astroglia in the hippocampus and cerebellum, and positive caspase-3 reaction in Bergmann astroglia |
| Wyrembek et al. | 2010 | J Physiol Pharmacol. | TM | animal model | animal | rats | hippocampal neurons | na | na | damaged a significant proportion of neurons after 60-90 min exposure; reduced both NMDA and GABA responses |
| Gallagher & Goodman | 2010 | J Toxicol Environ Health A. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | National Health Interview Survey 1997-2002, boys 3-17 yo, born before 1999 | birth | males more affected | threefold greater odds for autism diagnosis |
| Olczak et al.b | 2010 | Neurochem Res. | TM | animal model | animal | rats | brain | early postnatal life | na | alterations in opiod recepters, degenerating neurons and loss of synaptic vesicle marker (synaptophysin) |
| Hewitson et al. a | 2010 | J Toxicol Environ Health A. | TM | animal model | animal | newborn primates | tested nine survival, motor, and sensorimotor reflexes | birth | na | delayed acquisition of neonatal reflexes |
| Zieminska et al. | 2010 | Toxicology. | TM | animal model | animal | rats | cerebellar granule cells | na | na | induced the rise in the intracellular calcium and zinc concentration and decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential |
| Rodrigues et al. | 2010 | Arch Toxicol. | TM | animal model | animal | rats | rat tissues (brain, heart, kidney and liver) and blood | na | na | mercury in tissues and blood following TM treatment was predominantly found as Ino-Hg, but a considerable amount of Et-Hg was also found in the liver and brain. |
| Hewitson et al. b | 2010 | Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars). | TM | animal model | animal | rhesus macaque infants | amygdala growth | 4 and 6 months | na | altered amygdala maturation |
| Paradis et al. | 2010 | Northeast Bioengineering Conference | TM | animal model | animal | snail | neuronal patterns | infant | na | a clear disruption of the baseline neuronal communication pattern when the extracted central nervous system is exposed to Thimerosal |
| Gardner et al. | 2010 | Toxicol Lett. | TM | tissue culture | vascular | human | peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro | na | na | decreases IFN-gamma release |
| Migdal et al. | 2010 | Toxicology. | TM | tissue culture | immune | human | dendritic cells | na | na | a calcium (Ca2+) influx , induced glutathione (GSH) depletion and reactive oxygen species |
| Geier et al. | 2010 | Indian J Med Res. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | Vaccine Safety Datalink, birth cohorts, 1990-1996, premature puberty | birth-7 months and birth-13 months | na | increased rate ratios for premature puberty |
| Migdal et al. | 2010 | Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. | TM | tissue culture | immune | human | dendritic cells (DCs) | na | na | induced DC activation, as monitored by CD86 and HLA-DR overexpression associated with the secretion of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 8, oxidative stress, monitored by ROS induction and depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane |
| Geier et al. | 2010 | Med Sci Monit. | TM | tissue culture | human and bacterial | human and bacterial | human neuroblastoma cells/bacterial cells | na | na | relative toxicity indices (human neuroblastoma cells/bacterial cells) were 2-phenoxyethanol (4.6-fold) < phenol (12.2-fold) < Thimerosal (>330-fold), TM more toxic to human cells than bacteria |
| Marques et al. | 2010 | Acta Paediatr. | TM | clinical | human infants | human infants | Gesell Developmental Schedules (GDS) test | prenatal | na | GDS at 6 months was significantly associated with total mercury concentration of neonate's hair |
| Minami et al. | 2010 | Cell Biol Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | brain | mice | cerebellum and cerebrum | na | na | expressed metallothionein (MT) messenger RNA |
| Geier et al. | 2009 | Toxicol Environ Chem. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | neuroblastoma cells and fetal cells | na | na | mitochondrial damage, reduced oxidative-reduction activity, cellualr degeneration, and cell death |
| Olczak et al. | 2009 | Brain Res. | TM | animal model | rat infants | rats | brain, liver and kidneys | early postnatal life | no | accumulates in the rat brain in significant amounts and remains there longer than 30 days after the injection and also increased pain threshold |
| Kuo et al. | 2009 | Hum Exp Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | immune | human | oral cancer cells | na | na | killed cells in a concentration-dependent manner through apoptosis |
| Marques et al. | 2009 | Cogn Behav Neurol. | TM | clinical | human infants | human infants | infant hair-Hg and Gesell schedules | pre/post natal exposure to methyl and TM | na | GS at 6 months was significantly influenced by Hg exposure- methyl and TM |
| Hashimoto et al. | 2009 | Toxicol In Vitro. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rats | thymocytes | na | na | increases intracellular Zn(2+) concentration via decreasing cellular thiol content |
| Peltz et al. | 2009 | Int J Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | vascular | bovine | pulmonary artery ECs | na | na | activates vascular endothelial cell (EC) phospholipase D (PLD), suggesting mechanisms of mercury vasculotoxicity |
| Minami et al. | 2009 | Toxicology. | TM | tissue culture | brain | mice | metallothionein (MT) mRNAs in cerebellum microglia cell line, C8-B4 cells | na | na | MT-1 mRNA significantly decreased |
| James et al. | 2009 | FASEB J. | TM | tissue culture | human children | lymphoblastoid cells (autistic vs controls) | glutatione levels/redox | na | na | thimerosal resulted in a greater decrease in the GSH/GSSG ratio and increase in free radical generation in autism compared to control cells |
| Epstein et al. | 2009 | J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. | TM | tissue culture | human | human tissue | conjunctival and corneal epithelial cells | na | ns | ocular tissue damage |
| Tozzi et al. | 2009 | Pediatrics. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | 10 y follow up of pertussis vaccine trial in 1992-3, neuropsych testing | early postnatal life | unclear | girls with higher thimerosal intake had lower mean scores in the finger-tapping test with the dominant hand and in the Boston Naming Test |
| Branch | 2009 | Exp Toxicol Pathol. | TM | animal model | animal | male and female CD1 mice | maximum tolerated dose | adult mice | males more affected | gender-selective toxicity |
| Gallagher & Goodman | 2008 | Toxicolgy & Environmental Chemistry | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999–2000, children aged 1–9 years | early postnatal life | males more affected | boys given thimerosal (hep B) more susceptible to developmental disability than unvaccinated boys |
| Young et al. | 2008 | J Neurol Sci. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | Vaccine Safety Datalink, birth-7 months and birth-13 months | 3 months of age | na | increased rate ratios were observed for autism, autism spectrum disorders, tics, attention deficit disorder, and emotional disturbances |
| Geier et al. | 2008 | Neuro Endocrinol Lett. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | maternal Rh-negativity assessed among 298 Caucasian children with NDs and known Rh-status | prenatal | na | increases in maternal Rh-negativity among children with NDs, autism spectrum disorders, and attention-deficit-disorder/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder |
| Eke & Celik | 2008 | Toxicol In Vitro. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | cultured peripheral blood lymphocyte cells | na | na | genotoxic and cytotoxic effect |
| Wu et al. | 2008 | Chem Res Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | interaction of thimerosal with topoisomerase II alpha and protein and nonprotein thiols and with DNA | na | na | reacted rapidly with cysteine, GSH, human serum albumin, and single-stranded DNA to form ethylmercury adducts, inhibited the decatenation activity of DNA topoisomerase II alpha, induced single and double strand breaks in K562 cells were consistent with a rapid induction of apoptosis |
| Laurente et al. | 2007 | Anales de la Facultad de Medicina | TM | tissue culture | animal | hamsters 7 days old | encephalon | 7 days old | na | neurotoxic effects were also produced at encephalic level: at hippocampus (regions CA1, CA3 and DG), cerebral cortex, and cerebellum (Purkinje cells and granulose cells); with decrease in neuronal density, neuronal necrosis, axonal demyelinization, and gliosis. |
| Park et al. | 2007 | J Toxicol Environ Health A. | TM | tissue culture | human and animal | murine and human | kidney cells | na | na | cytotoxicity on renal cells |
| Liu et al. | 2007 | Toxicol Sci. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | gastric cancer cells | na | na | reduced cell viability, apoptosis, and induced [Ca2+](i) increases via Ca2+ influx from the extracellular space |
| Geier & Geier | 2007 | J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | na | na | children with ASDs (28.30%) were significantly more likely (odds ratio 2.35, 95% confidence interval 1.17-4.52, p < 0.01) to have Rh-negative mothers than controls (14.36%). Each ASD patient's mother was determined to have been administered a TCR during her pregnancy. |
| Nguyen et al. | 2007 | Eye Contact Lens. | TM | case report | human | human female | eyes | na | na | total limbal stem cell (LSC) failure and corneal opacification |
| Lawton et al. | 2007 | Toxicol In Vitro. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mice | N2a neuroblastoma and rat C6 glioma cells | na | na | impaired neurite outgrowth |
| Ribeiro et al. | 2007 | Neurosci Res. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mice brain | neuroblastoma N1E-115 cell line | na | na | blockade of the resting state, hyperpolarizing shifts of m(infinity) and h(infinity) curves, change in the voltage sensitivity and slower inactivating kinetics, |
| Geier & Geier | 2007 | J Toxicol Environ Health A. | TM | case series | human children | human children | children with apparent mercury toxic encephalopathies and regressive autistic disorder | na | na | significant dose-response relationship between the severity of the regressive ASDs observed and the total mercury dose children received from Thimerosal-containing vaccines/Rho (D)-immune globulin preparations |
| Hagele et al. | 2007 | Int J Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | bovine | pulmonary artery endothelial cell | na | na | endothelial lipid signaling enzyme, phospholipase D (PLD), enhanced reactive oxygen species generation, decrease of levels of total cellular thiols |
| Yole et al. | 2007 | Toxicology. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mice | YAC-1 lymphoma cells | na | na | induced microtubule depolymerization and inhibition of tubulin synthesis and/or beta-tubulin degradation |
| Karsen et al. | 2007 | J Infect Dev Ctries. | TM | case report | human | human | 43 yo female given tetanus injection with recation to TM | na | na | hypersensitivity, myelodysplastic syndrome and pancytopenia. |
| Havarinasab et al. | 2007 | Toxicology. | TM | tissue culture | animal | murine | autoimmune syndrome | na | na | activated the production of anti-fibrillarin autoantibodies (AFA), and induced a persistent Th1-skewed response |
| Agrawal | 2007 | J Leukoc Biol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | dendritic cells | na | na | induced increased TH2 (IL-5 and IL-13) and decreased TH1 (IFN-gamma) cytokine secretion from the T cells, depletion of intracellular glutathione (GSH) |
| Thompson et al. | 2007 | N Engl J Med. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | 1047 children between the ages of 7 and 10 years and administered standardized tests assessing 42 neuropsychological outcomes | childhood vaccines | males more affected | increased risk of tics |
| Zheng & Dreskin | 2007 | Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. | TM | case report | human | human | 31 yo female, response to skin prick test with TM | na | na | generalized pruritus without hives, throat tightness, and a dry cough without wheezing on auscultation |
| Geier & Geier | 2006 | Med Sci Monit. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) from 1991 through 2004 | early postnatal life | na | reduction on neurodevelopmental disorders with decreased use of TM in vaccines |
| Orct et al. | 2006 | J Appl Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat infants | distribution in blood and organs (kidney, liver and brain) | na | na | high brain and blood concentrations |
| Lee et al. | 2006 | Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | HeLa S epithelial cells | na | na | apoptosis, reduced cell viability and intracellular glutathione levels, and increase of genomic DNA fragmentation |
| Goth et al. | 2006 | Environ Health Perspect. | TM | tissue culture | animal | murine | dendritic cells | na | na | altered ATP-mediated interleukin-6 secretion, initially enhancing the rate of cytokine secretion but suppressing cytokine secretion overall in DCs. |
| Geier & Geier | 2006 | Neuro Endocrinol Lett. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), from 1994 through 2000 in the United States | na | na | significantly increased adjusted (sex, age, vaccine type, vaccine manufacturer) risks of autism, speech disorders, mental retardation, personality disorders, thinking abnormalities, ataxia, and NDs in general, with minimal systematic error or confounding, were associated with TCV exposure |
| Geier & Geier | 2006 | J Toxicol Environ Health A. | TM | epidemiology | human children | human children | Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), DTP and Hib vaccines in comparison to DTPH vaccine, from 1994-1998 | na | na | significantly increased odds ratios for autism, speech disorders, mental retardation, infantile spasms, and thinking abnormalities reported to VAERS were found following DTP vaccines in comparison to DTPH vaccines |
| Woo et al. | 2006 | Mol Carcinog. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | leukemia cells | na | na | apoptosis, G(2)/M phase arrest, and DNA fragmentation in a dose-dependent manner. |
| Herdman et al. | 2006 | Toxicol Sci. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | SK N SH (Human neuroblastoma cell line) | na | na | apoptosis in a neuroblastoma model via the cJun N-terminal kinase pathway |
| Havarinasab & Hultman | 2006 | Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | murine | murine systemic autoimmune diseases | na | na | induced glomerular, mesangial and systemic vessel wall immune-complex deposits and antinuclear antibodies (ANA) |
| Pérez et al. | 2006 | J Lipid Res. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | U937 phagocytes | na | na | blocks the conversion of Arachidonic acid into arachidonoyl-CoA, and a CoA-independent transacylase inhibitor that blocks the movement of AA within phospholipids |
| Slodownik & Ingber | 2005 | Contact Dermatitis. | TM | patch testing | human | human | screening for contact dermatitis | na | na | high proportion of mechanics (42.1%) among the patients who had positive reaction to thimerosal (P < 0.0001). |
| Burbacker et al. | 2005 | Environ Health Perspect. | TM | tissue culture | animal | infant monkeys | mercury levels in the brain | na | na | there was a higher percentage of the total mercury in the brain that was in the form of inorganic mercury for the Thimerosal-exposed monkeys (34% vs. 7%). |
| Yel et al. | 2005 | Int J Mol Med. | TM | tissue culture | brain | human | neuronal cell | na | na | induced apoptosis was associated with depolarization of mitochondrial membrane, generation of reactive oxygen species, and release of cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) from mitochondria to cytosol. |
| Mutkus et al. | 2005 | Biol Trace Elem Res. | TM | tissue culture | animal | Chinese hamster | ovary (CHO) cells | na | na | caused significant but selective changes in both glutamate transporter mRNA and protein expression in CHO cells |
| Havarinasab et al. | 2005 | Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. | TM | tissue culture | immune | mice | immune response | na | na | initial immunosuppressive effects leading to a second phase with strong immunostimulation and autoimmunity, which is T-cell dependent, H-2 linked |
| Chang et al. | 2005 | Pharmacol Res. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | osteoblast-like cells | na | na | induced cytosolic Ca2+ elevation and subsequent cell death in human osteosarcoma cells; concentrations of 5, 10 and 20 microM thimerosal killed 33, 55 and 100% cells, respectively |
| Parran et al. | 2005 | Toxicol Sci. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y cells) | na | na | elevated levels of fragmented DNA appearing at 0.01 microM (apoptosis) to decrease at concentrations >1 microM (necrosis) |
| Geier & Geier | 2005 | Med Sci Monit. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), (DTaP) vaccines, from 1997 through 2001 | na | na | exposure to mercury from TCVs administered in the US was a consistent significant risk factor for the development of NDs |
| Lee-Wong et al. | 2005 | Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. | TM | case report | human | human | patient who received an influenza vaccine | na | na | generalized maculopapular eruption |
| Ueha-Ishibashi et al. | 2005 | Toxicol In Vitro. | TM | tissue culture | animal | young rats | lymphocytes dissociated from thymic glands | na | na | depolarized the membranes, associated with increasing the [Ca2+]I; induced an apoptotic change in membranes of almost all living cells |
| James et al. | 2005 | Neurotoxicology. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | neuroblastoma cells and glioblastoma cells | na | na | induced cytotoxicity was associated with depletion of intracellular GSH in both cell lines |
| Humphrey et al. | 2005 | Neurotoxicology. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | neuroblastoma cell line (SK-N-SH | na | na | accumulated in the mitochondria; cytochrome c was shown to leak from the mitochondria, followed by caspase 9 cleavage within 8 h of treatment. In addition, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) was cleaved to form a 85 kDa fragment following maximal caspase 3 activation, apoptosis and oncosis/necrosis |
| Harry et al. | 2004 | Toxicol Lett. | TM | tissue culture | animal | neonatal mice | 24 h and 7 days post-injection, total mercury concentrations were determined in blood, kidney, brain, and muscle | na | na | Thimerosal IM injection resulted in 0.22 +/- 0.04% in the brain, and 1.7 +/- 0.3% in the kidney. By 7 days, mercury levels decreased in the blood but were unchanged in the brain. |
| Geier & Geier | 2004 | Int J Toxicol. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), (DTaP) vaccines, from 1997 through 2000 | na | na | evidence that administration of thimerosal-containing vaccines in the United States resulted in a significant number of children developing NDs |
| Jin et al. | 2004 | Neurosci Lett. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | TRPV1, a receptor for capsaicin | na | na | blocked the capsaicin-activated inward current (I(cap)) in cultured sensory neurons |
| Waly et al. | 2004 | Mol Psychiatry. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells | na | na | inhibited both IGF-1- and dopamine-stimulated methylation with an IC(50) of 1 nM and eliminated MS activity |
| Ueha-Ishibashi et al. | 2004 | Toxicol In Vitro. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rats | thymocytes | na | na | induced decrease in cellular content of glutathione and apoptosis |
| Hornig et al. | 2004 | Mol Psychiatry. | TM | tissue culture and animal model | animal | mouse | hippocampal neurons and neurological testing | na | na | showed growth delay; reduced locomotion; exaggerated response to novelty; and densely packed, hyperchromic hippocampal neurons with altered glutamate receptors and transporters |
| Bultynck et al. | 2004 | Biochem J. | TM | tissue culture | animal | chicken | B lymphoma cells | na | na | induce isoform-specific conformational changes in the N-terminal part of IP3R1, leading to the formation of a highly IP3-sensitive Ca2+-release channel |
| Geier & Geier | 2004 | Med Sci Monit. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Evaluations of the Biological Surveillance Summaries of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | childhood | na | evidence showing a direct relationship between increasing doses of mercury from thimerosal-containing vaccines and neurodevelopmental disorders, and measles-containing vaccines and serious neurological disorders. |
| Havarinasab et al. | 2004 | Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mouse | A.SW mice | na | na | induces in genetically susceptible mice a systemic autoimmune syndrome |
| Andrews et al. | 2004 | Pediatrics. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | 109 863 children who were born from 1988 to 1997 and were registered in general practices in the United Kingdom | childhood vaccines | males more affected | increased risk of tics |
| Ueha-Ishibashi et al. | 2004 | Toxicology. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat infants | cerebellar neurons | 2 weeks | na | increased the intracellular concentration of Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) in a concentration-dependent manner, decreased the cellular content of glutathione, and cytotoxic actions on cerebellar granule neurons |
| Nakao et al. | 2003 | Natural Science Research | TM | tissue culture | human | human | K562 human leukemia cells | na | na | potency of thimerosal to affect K562 cells was similar to that of methylmercury; inhibited the growth and increased the population of shrunken; hypodiploidal cells was also greatly increased; thimerosal-induced apoptosis |
| Qvarnström et al. | 2003 | Anal Chem. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mice | organs | na | na | was rapidly taken up in the organs of the mice (kidney, liver, and mesenterial lymph nodes), |
| Geier & Geier | 2003 | Pediatr Rehabil. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS) | childhood vaccines | na | occurrence of neurodevelopmental disorders following thimerosal-containing childhood vaccines does not appear to be coincidental |
| Alexandre et al. | 2003 | Biol Cell. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mice | mouse primary oocytes | na | na | induces an instantaneous, complete and long-lasting microtubule interphasic network disassembly in mouse primary oocytes, correlated with the irreversible inhibition of meiosis reinitiation |
| Baskin et al. | 2003 | Toxicol Sci. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | cultured human neurons and fibroblasts | na | na | induces DNA breaks, caspase-3 activation, membrane damage, and cell death in cultured human neurons and fibroblasts |
| Jan et al. | 2003 | Pharmacol Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | canine | Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells | na | na | increases calcium levels in renal tubular cells |
| Koh et al. | 2003 | Australas J Dermatol. | TM | case report | human | human child | 3.5 year old boy | 11 days prior to reaction | na | Wells' syndrome |
| Alexandre et al. | 2003 | Mol Reprod Dev. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mice | mouse oocyte | na | na | irreversibly inhibits meiosis reinitiation in mouse oocyte |
| Jain et al. | 2003 | J Pharm Pharmacol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | guinea-pig | cerebellar membranes | na | na | inhibitor of the binding of [(3)H]mepyramine to histamine H(1) receptors in guinea-pig cerebellar membranes |
| Geier & Geier | 2003 | Exp Biol Med (Maywood). | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS) | childhood vaccines | na | an association between neurodevelopmental disorders and thimerosal-containing DTaP vaccines was found |
| Westphal et al. | 2003 | Arch Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | lymphocytes | na | na | induces micronuclei in the cytochalasin B block micronucleus test with human lymphocytes |
| Verstraeten et al. | 2003 | Pediatrics. | TM | epidemiology | human | human children | retrospective cohort study was conducted using computerized health maintenance organization (HMO) databases | childhood vaccines | males more affected | increased risk of tics |
| Vojdani et al. | 2003 | Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. | TM | clinical | human | human children | lymphocyte receptors and tissue enzyme (DPP IV or CD26); human serum albumin in patients with autism | na | na | bind to lymphocyte receptors and/or tissue enzymes, resulting in autoimmune reaction in children with autism |
| Kim et al. | 2002 | Biochim Biophys Acta. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | HeLa S cells | na | na | stimulates focal adhesion kinase and cytoskeletal changes by redox modulation |
| Hidalgo et al. | 2002 | Biol Res. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mammal | sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles isolated from skeletal or cardiac mammalian muscle | na | na | increased susceptibility to stimulation by Ca2+ and decreased the inhibitory effect of Mg2+ in skeletal vesicles |
| Makani et al. | 2002 | Genes Immun. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | Jurkat T cells (Human T cell lymphoblast-like cell line) | na | na | induced apoptosis in T cells as determined by TUNEL and propidium iodide assays, suggesting a role of mercury in T cell apoptosis; and enhanced intracellular reactive oxygen species and reduced intracellular glutathione (GSH) |
| Kerst et al. | 2002 | J Membr Biol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | Xenopus laevis (frog) | KCNE1-injected Xenopus laevis oocytes | na | na | interacts with the cysteine residue C214 in the S3 segment of KCNQ1, leading to a change of its gating properties. |
| Müller et al. | 2001 | Int J Hyg Environ Health. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | erythrocytic GST T1 (glutathione-S-transferase T1) | na | na | inhibition of the human erythrocytic glutathione-S-transferase T1 (GST T1) |
| Montero et al. | 2001 | Cell Calcium. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | intact HeLa cells | na | na | increased the sensitivity to histamine of ER-Ca(2+)-release by about two orders of magnitude; thimerosal increased the [Ca(2+)](ER) steady-state level in permeabilized cells; and inhibited also plasma membrane Ca(2+)extrusion and increased Ca(2+)(Mn(2+)) entry through the plasma membrane |
| Chen et al. | 2000 | Zhonghua Er Bi Yan Hou Ke Za Zhi. | TM | tissue culture | animal | guinea pig | cochlear outer hair cells | na | na | induced Ca2+ mobilization in isolated guinea pig cochlear outer hair cells |
| Westphal et al. | 2000 | Int Arch Occup Environ Health. | TM | clinical | human | human | Central European individuals with a positive patch-test reaction to thimerosal vs healthy controls | na | na | homozygous gene deletions of the glutathione S-transferases M1 and T1 are associated with thimerosal sensitization |
| Song et al. | 2000 | Brain Res. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat | tetrodotoxin-sensitive (TTX-S) and tetrodotoxin-resistant (TTX-R) sodium channels in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons | na | na | blocked the two types of sodium channels in a dose-dependent manner; the inhibitory effect of thimerosal was much more pronounced in TTX-R sodium channels than TTX-S sodium channels; and the effect of thimerosal was irreversible |
| Donoso et al. | 2000 | Biophys J. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rabbit | triad-enriched sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles isolated from rabbit skeletal muscle | na | na | produced a significant increase of release rate constants and initial release rates at all [Mg(2+)] tested (up to 1 mM), and shifted the K(0.5) value for Mg(2+) inhibition to 101 or 137 microM in triads actively or passively loaded with calcium, respectively. Further oxidation of vesicles with thimerosal completely suppressed the inhibitory effect of [Mg(2+)] on CICR, yielding initial rates of CICR of 2 micromol/(mg x s) in the presence of 1 mM free [Mg(2+)]. |
| Verstraeten et al. | 1999 | Abstract | TM | epidemiology | human | human infants | database from 4 HMOs contained immunization, medical visit, and demographic data on over 400,000 infants born 1991 and 1997 | postnatal | na | elevated risk for the following disorders: autism (RR 7.6, 95% Cl = 1.8-31.5), non-organic sleep disorders (RR 5.0, 95% Cl = 1.6-15.9}, and speech disorders (RR 2.1, 95% (1=1.1-4.0) |
| Mihai et al. | 1999 | Cell Calcium. | TM | tissue culture | human | human | calcium receptor in human parathyroid and rMTC6-23 cells | na | na | increases the responsiveness of the calcium receptor in human parathyroid and rMTC6-23 cells |
| Patrizi et al. | 1999 | Contact Dermatitis. | TM | clinical | human | human children | atopic children | na | na | high frequency of sensitization to thimerosal in atopic children |
| Chen et al. | 1998 | Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. | TM | tissue culture | animal | guinea pig | guinea pig cochlear outer hair cells | na | na | induced Ca2+ mobilization in isolated guinea pig cochlear outer hair cells |
| Karhapää et al. | 1996 | Cell Calcium. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat | GH4C1 pituitary cells | na | na | potently inhibited the Ba2+ currents through voltage-operated Ca2+ channels |
| Nishio et al. | 1996 | Neurochem Int. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rabbit | rabbit blood platelets | na | na | serotonin transport activity into rabbit blood platelets was inhibited |
| Thrower et al. | 1996 | Biochem J. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat | Ca2+ channel from rat cerebellum | na | na | enhances Ins(1,4,5)P3-induced Ca2+ release by both altering the open times of the channel significantly and causing a shift to higher subconductance levels |
| Wiktorek et al. | 1996 | Biochem Biophys Res Commun. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat | intact glioma C6 cells | na | na | inhibit phosphatidylserine synthesis by 70%, |
| Wu et al. | 1996 | FEBS Lett. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mouse | single pancreatic acinar cells | na | na | modulates the agonist-specific cytosolic Ca2+ oscillatory patterns in single pancreatic acinar cells of mouse |
| Abramson et al. | 1995 | J Biol Chem. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rabbit | skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum | na | na | stimulate Ca2+ release from skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles, inhibit high affinity [3H]ryanodine binding, and modify the channel activity of the reconstituted Ca2+ release protein |
| Eto et al. | 1993 | J Toxicol Pathol | TM | tissue culture | animal | mice | safety of TM | adult mice | na | transformed into inorganic Hg (more than methylHg) |
| Bootman et al. | 1992 | J Biol Chem. | TM | tissue culture | human | HeLa cells | Fura-2-loaded HeLa cells | na | na | stimulated Ca2+ spikes occurred in the absence of extracellular (Ca2+ o), suggesting that they result from mobilization of Ca2+ from intracellular stores |
| Brunner et al. | 1991 | Mutagenesis. | TM | tissue culture | animal | pig | pig brain | na | na | TM led to rapid inhibition of tubulin assembly abd disassembly of microtubules |
| Withrow et al. | 1989 | Photochem Photobiol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | mouse | mouse lymphoma | na | na | TM was toxic to cells and highly mutagenic |
| Chanez et al. | 1989 | Neurotoxicology. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat fetus | brain, total brain homogenate, synaptosomes and myelin | prenatal | na | inhibition of Na+K+ATPase activity |
| Chervonskaia et al. | 1988 | Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human diploid cells | cytotoxic action (CTA) of chemical substances contained as admixtures | na | na | toxic at 0.8micrograms/ml; aluminum sulafte toxic at 500 micrograms/ml |
| Cai et al. | 1988 | Curr Eye Res. | TM | animal model | rabbit | ophthalmic | antibodies to lens care re-agents | na | na | delayed and immediate forms of hypersensitivity to the thimerosal conjugates |
| Kravchenko et al. | 1984 | Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human cell line L-132 | tested DTP vaccine on the cell line L-132 | na | na | in a concentration of 1 in 10,000, contained in one vaccine caused celluar damage |
| Kravchenko et al. | 1982 | Zh Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol. | TM | tissue culture | human | human cell line L-132 | tested DTP vaccine on the cell line L-132 | na | na | most toxic effect on cells was caused by components of pertussis antigens and merthiolate solution. |
| Matheson et al. | 1980 | J Pediatr. | TM | case report | human | human children | child given gammaglobulin preserved with TM | na | na | acrodynia or mercury poisoning resulted including nerve damage |
| Anundi et al. | 1979 | Acta Pharmacol Toxicol. | TM | tissue culture | animal | hepatocytes | hepaocytes | na | na | glutathione depletion and lipid peroxidation |
| Fagan et al. | 1977 | Arch Dis Child. | TM | clinical | human | human infants | 13 cases of infants with exomphalos treated with TM | post natal | na | 10 out of 13 infants dies; Hg blood and tissue levels above toxic levels for fetuses and adults |
| Parry abstract | 1977 | Mutat Res. | TM | tissue culture | fungus | yeast cells | yeast cells | na | na | induced significant genetic alterations at a level < 1ppb |
| Heinonen et al. | 1977 | Publishing Sciences Group (book) | TM | epidemiology | human | 50,000 pregnancies | studied drug exposure during pregnancy and malformations in the infants | prenatal | na | serotonin transport activity into rabbit blood platelets was inhibited |
| Blair et al. | 1975 | Toxicology. | TM | tissue culture | animal | monkeys | Squirrel monkeys were dosed intranasally | na | na | mercury concentrations were significantly raised over control values in brain (high dose group only), liver, muscle and kidney, but not in bloo |
| Braaten et al. | 1975 | Tissue Cell. | TM | tissue culture | animal | rat | Rat, Wistar-Lewis, fetal 18-20 day gestation; (also neonatal 3-12 day old); primary cultures of endocrine pancreas | pre and post natal | na | destroys fibroblastoid cells |
| Gasset et al. | 1975 | Arch Ophthamol. | TM | animal model | animal | rabbits | rabbits injected prenataly | adult and prenatal | na | caused dose-dependent increase in fetal mortality and was found to cross the placental and blood brain barrier |
| Axton abstract | 1972 | Postgraduate Medical Journal | TM | clinical | human | human adults and children | adults and children | na | na | five out of the six patients died, and necropsy showed extensive renal tubular necrosis in each case, and in two, evidence of diffuse intravascular coagulation. |
| Itoi et al. | 1972 | Jpn J Clin Ophthal. | TM | animal model | animal | rabbits | reproductive health in rabbits | prenatal | na | significantly increased numbers of dead fetuses (up to 18% of fetuses died following exposure) and increased fetal congenital anomalies (up to 9.1% of fetuses developed congenital anomalies following exposure) |
| Nelson & Gottshall | 1967 | Appl Microbiol. | TM | animal model | animal | mouse | mice injected with pertussis vaccine with TM and without TM | na | na | pertussis vaccines preserved with 0.01%Merthiolate are more toxic for mice than unpreserved vaccines prepared from the same parent concentrate and containing the same number of organisms. An increase in mortality was observed when Merthiolate was injected separately, before or after an unpreserved saline suspension of pertussis vaccine |
| Ellis | 1943 | Arch Ophthamol. | TM | clinical | human | patients | TM used in ophthamic ointment | na | na | merthiolate is capable of causing an inflammation of the mucous membrane in patients |
| Kinsella | 1941 | Ann Intern Med. | TM | clinical | human | patients with endocarditis | 13 cases of patients treated with TM for endocarditis | na | na | all patients receiving the Thimerosal treatment died, and that following autopsy, some of the patients were determined to have died of mercury poisoning from the Thimerosal treatment. |
| Welch & Hunter | 1940 | Am J Public Health. | TM | tissue culture | human & animal | human & Guinea pig blood | varying dilutions | na | na | TM was more toxic for human cells than bacterial cells (toxicity index=5.7) and was among the 10 germicides tested, had the ninth worst toxicity index. |
| Welch | 1939 | J. Immunol. | TM | tissue culture | mammalian | whole blood | compared the relative toxicity of Thimerosal with other germicide compounds, e.g., phenol or iodine | na | na | TM was, by several orders of magnitude, the most toxic compound tested |
| Cummins | 1937 | Lancet | TM | animal model | animal | Guinea pigs | inoculated Guinea pigs | na | na | guinea-pigs inoculated with 1 c.cm. of the mixtures after 24 hours all died |
| Salle & Lazarus | 1935 | Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. | TM | tissue culture | animal | embryonic tissue | compared emryonic cells to bacterial cells | na | na | Thimerosal 35.3 times more toxic to embryonic cells than bacterial cells |
| Powell & Jamieson | 1931 | Am J Hyg. | TM | animal model | animal | animals | toxicity studies | na | na | significant numbers of animals died within days of exposure |
| Smithburn et al. | 1930 | J. Am. Med. Assoc. | TM | human | human | human | 21 adults with meningitis were given an injection IV 1% solution TM | na | na | 20 of 21 people died with 24 hours, the 21st person started to recover, but after a second dose, he died |